INTRODUCTION
As Earth's population continues to grow,
people are putting ever-increasing pressure on the planet's water resources. In
a sense, our oceans, rivers, and other inland waters are being "squeezed" by
human activities - not so they take up less room, but so their quality is
reduced. Poorer water quality means water pollution.
As industrialization has spread around the globe, so the problem of pollution
has spread with it. Water pollution is the contamination of
water bodies. This form of environmental degradation occurs
when pollutants are
directly or indirectly discharged into water bodies without adequate treatment to
remove harmful compounds. Water pollution affects the entire biosphere –
plants and organisms living in these bodies of water.
Water pollution is a serious problem for the entire world. It threatens the
health and well being of humans, plants, and animals.
Water is
typically referred to as polluted when it is impaired by anthropogenic
contaminants and either does not support a human use, such as drinking water,
or undergoes a marked shift in its ability to support its constituent biotic
communities, such as fish. Natural phenomena such as volcanoes, algae blooms,
storms, and earthquakes also cause major changes in water quality and the
ecological status of water. The specific contaminants leading to pollution in
water include a wide spectrum of chemicals, pathogens, and physical changes
such as elevated temperature and discoloration. High concentration of naturally
occurring substances can have negative impacts on aquatic flora and fauna. Oxygen–depleting
substances may be natural materials such as plant matters as well as man–made
chemicals. Other natural and anthropogenic substances may cause turbidity
(cloudiness) which blocks light and disrupts plant growth, and clogs the gills
of some fish species (EPA, 2005).
Contamination of
aquatic ecosystems with untreated toxic chemicals from domestic, industrial and
agricultural activities has been receiving increased worldwide attention. These
amplified levels of contamination have of them on aquatic environments is serve
due to the inability of water to disperse contaminants. Fishes make ideal model
system for understanding the mechanisms of environmental adaptations and
pollution and can be used in studies of aquatic toxicology, biochemical and
genetic adaptations and research in carcinogenesis. Despite some limitations
fishes are most considered the most feasible organism for pollution monitoring
in aquatic systems because fishes
accumulate pollutants preferentially in their fatty tissues like liver and the
effects become apparent when concentrations in such tissues attain a threshold
level (Omar et
al., 2014).
Stress is
present in the lives of all living things and is the force that brings about
physical changes and adjustment. It is defined as a condition in which the
dynamic equilibrium of animal organisms called homeostasis is threatened or
disturbed as a result of the actions of intrinsic and extrinsic stimuli
commonly defined as stressors (Wendelaar Bonga, 1997). Fishes are not only a
major ecosystem component but also an important food resource; therefore it is
important to study the physiological mechanism in response to stressors. When
fish is challenged by stressors, a number of physiologic responses of reactive
nature are engaged in an attempt to counteract the threat and to recover from
the distributed physiologic homeostasis. The stress response thus involves
primary endocrine responses (secretion of ACTH, cortisol, and catecholamines)
and secondary responses including an increase in plasma glucose and tertiary or
whole organism responses (Barton, 2002). Cortisol plays an important role in
the ion regulatory physiology of freshwater fish and modulates the ion transporting enzymes related to
hypoosmoregulation, promotes protein degradation and glycogen deposition in the
liver and suppresses the immune system, sex steroids secretion and gonad
maturation in stressed fishes (Stolte et
al., 2008).
Pollution is a question of quality as well as
quantity. Certain concentration of any chemical substances may result pollution
in one location but may be quite harmless in the same concentration at another
point. The productive sector especially agriculture itself warrants usage of
several hazardous chemicals or compounds even in limited quantity ultimately
leads to bioaccumulations and biomagnifications (Murthy et al., 1986). During the past two decades much attention has been
given to aquatic pollution as enormous quantities of hazardous and toxic
materials discharged into the coastal and estuarine ecosystem (Eisler, 1986).
Metals and pesticides constitute the most widely distributed group of highly
toxic non degradable stable substance and dominant among toxicants. The
accumulation of these toxicants in the tissues of the organism can result in
chronic illness and cause potential damage to the populations (Baria, 1999).
Generally
aquatic organisms are susceptible to pollution effects by pesticides industrial
effluents, radioactive wastes, heavy metals, product of mining, minerals, oil,
biocides, herbicides, sewage and domestic wastes, organic wastes, detergents,
fertilizers and the sediments dispersed from these pollutants. The pesticides
cause a number of subsidiary problems like affecting the ecosystems, and the
growth, reproduction and behavior by causing pathological and physiological
changes (Meenakshi, 1993) and alterations in biochemical constituents of fishes
(Anon, 1962). Sewage and domestic wastes has important role in polluting water
bodies. It mainly includes household wastes, detergents etc. Detergents have
caused more concern during the past few years these compounds have caused much
concern during the past few years owing to their tendency even in small amounts
to cause from rivers. But there is considerable experimental evidence that low
concentrations of synthetic detergents are toxic to fish. The types of
synthetic detergents found in sewage and rivers are mostly increasing in
popularity and it is reported that together these two types represent 90
percent of the synthetic detergents used in the U. S. A.
Detergents that
contain phosphate are highly caustic, and surfactant detergents are very toxic.
They are widely used in daily activities and these detergents cause excess
frothing and growth of floating aquatic weeds (eutrophication) on the water
surface, affecting aeration and quality of fresh water. This adversely affects
the physiological and biochemical processes of fish, number of factors such as
temperature, pH, salinity, turbidity and so on affecting the dissolved oxygen
content as well as the oxygen consumption by the fishes. The synthetic
detergents can alter pH and salinity of receiving freshwater bodies, which
affect oxygen consumption by aquatic organisms including fishes (Chandanshive,
2013).
Toxicants will
act on biological organisms in a multidimensional way and they will tries to
adapt it to these changes by changing metabolic activities. But at higher
concentration, these pollutants can cause damage to the physiological system by
affecting the organisms either at organ and cellular levels or even at
molecular level, which in turn cause changes in the biochemical composition,
which can be used to study the different protective mechanisms of the body to
resist toxic substances and detoxification. Blood being the medium of
intercellular and intracellular transport, which comes in direct contact with
various organs and tissues of the body, the physiological state of an animal at
a particular time is reflected in its blood. Pesticides rapidly bind to the
blood proteins and induce hematological changes such as changes in blood
glucose, serum protein and serum cholesterol levels, which are of some value in
assessing the impact of exposure under natural conditions and may also, serve
as tools for biological monitoring. Histological and cellular changes
elucidated by toxicants are significant as cell forms the basic unit of life. Histopathological
and hematological lesions are the first formed effect on biological organisms.
According to Fower et al., (1983),
histopathological studies become essential to understand the mechanism of cell
damage resulting from exposure to toxicants and extend for which chemically
diverse group of trace metals regulate metabolic processes by altering
organelle structure. Several histopathological investigations were reported on
the toxic effect of different kinds of pollutants like heavy metals and
pesticides (Hemmaid and Kaldas, 1994; Brock, 1998). Establishment of normal
variation in hematological factors is a pre-requisite for the identification of stressful conditions.
Changes in blood parameters are often quick responses to environmental or
physiological alteration and they are easily measurable and provide an
integrated measure of the organism (Tort and Torres, 1988).
Among
vertebrates, fishes are the most suitable candidate species for bioassay
experiments. Air breathing fishes like channas
triatus (Murrel), Anabas testudineus
and Claris batrachus are the common,
abundant fresh water fishes in South India, inhabiting ponds, rivers, tanks and
paddy fields (Ekamvaranatha Ayyar, 1985). It occupies third tropic level in
food chain, which is a table fish. Being the common edible fishes consumes
extensively and toxic accumulation on them may be transferred to the human
beings through bioaccumulation and biomagnifications. Being, Anabas as an air
breathing fish, resistant to much of variation in environment, the effect of
various pollutants on them are almost equal to the effects of pollutants on
them are almost equal to the effects of pollutants on a higher taxonomic level.
Even though Anabas is very sturdy in tiding over
stressful environment, presence of detergents proved detrimental. The objective
of the present study is to experience how Tide, commonly used detergent, makes
stress in Anabas testudineus and to observe survival and histological
parameter variations on freshwater fish Anabas
testudineus.
REVIEW
OF LITERATURE
Addition of unwanted substances into the
water bodies cause changes in the physical, chemical and biological
characteristics of the aquatic system which lead to ecological imbalance. The
industrial effluents contribute a lot to water pollution forming a threat to
aquatic plants and animals (Ramona et al., 2001). A greater part of the
pollutants exhibit biomagnifications and bioaccumulation capabilities with a
broad spectrum of impacts, and stresses on aquatic organisms (Censi et al.,
2006). The pollution leads to a steady decline in the aquatic flora and fauna,
particularly fishes. Wedemeyer (1996) reported that the fishes are more
susceptible to stress than many other animals because of their intimate dependence upon their surrounding environment.
Aquatic organisms, like fish, accumulate
pollutants directly from contaminated water and indirectly through the food
chain (Nussey et al., 2000; Ashraf, 2005 and Riba et al., 2004).
Once the toxicant enters the body of the fish they may affect the organs
leading to physiological and pathological disorders. An array of
histopathological fluctuations was observed among fishes exposed to pollutants
both in field and in laboratory conditions (Abdallah and Abdallah, 2008;
Amundsen et al., 1997 and Andres et al., 2000). Therefore the
haematological and histopathological studies are potential tools to analyze the
effect of toxicants on various target organs of fish in laboratory experiments
and in field investigations (Schwaiger et al., 1992 and Kori-Siakpere et
al., 2005). Fishes are considered as one of the most significant indicators
in freshwater systems for the evaluation of metal pollution (Rashed, 2001).
Several commercial and edible species have been widely investigated to detect
the presence of hazardous chemicals (Begum et al., 2005).
The quality of water and the well being
of fishes are interconnected and directly proportional. The fluctuations in any
of the parameters severely affect the dwelling organisms, especially fishes
(Greig et al., 2005). Even slight variations in water quality cause a
wide variety of stresses among fishes because their homeostatic mechanisms are
highly reliant on existing conditions in their immediate surrounding parameters
(Nussey et al., 1995). In general, there exists much variation among
fishes to adapt to alterations in salinity and is often proportional to the
pace of the changes. In natural settings, salinity levels can fluctuate with
tides, season, or evaporation from surface waters. Similarly pH also plays a
significant role in metabolism, maintenance of homeostasis and physiological
well being of aquatic animals (Wood et al., 1989 and Parra and
Baldisserotho, 2007). Extreme increase and decrease in pH value in an aquatic
medium are reported to cause disturbance in acid – base and iron regulation,
fish growth and reproduction and sometimes leads to mortality (Evans et al.,
2005 and Zanibomi - Filho et al., 2009).
Arimoro et al., (2007) who
studied the relation between depleting water quality and fish abundance in
Benin River, Niger Delta Area and Nigeria reported that the distribution and
abundance of fish species are directly proportional to water quality and also
found that oxidative stress, incorporating both antioxidant defenses as well as
oxidative damage, is a common effect in organisms exposed to xenobiotics in
their environment. Rueda et al.,
(2002) posited that a stressed biological population is characterized by
reduction in diversity and population size. Various aspects of stress in fish
fauna have been reviewed by Elahee and Bhagwant (2007). Sudden change in the
environment of fishes adversely affects the blood composition (Shreck, 1981;
Chang et al., 1998 and Gabriel et al., 2007).
The toxic contaminants from the
industrial and agricultural areas are let out into the water bodies and most of
them are very much persistent, their levels fast reach to life threatening in
terms of both space and time (Brack et al., 2002). Even though the
fishes can tolerate the adverse effects of pollution stress to a certain extent
by some physiological mechanism, a decline of fish species with respect to
pollution load was observed (Saravanan et al., 2003). Several studies
have been conducted by various researchers to investigate the toxic effects of
industrial pollution on fish population. Cazenave et al., (2005)
compared the haematological parameters in a Neotropical fish, Corydoras
paleatus (Jeyns, 1842) captured
from pristine and polluted water with notable differences due to stressed
condition in polluted water. Acute intoxication of deltamethrin in monosex Nile
tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus with commendable variations in clinical,
biochemical and haematological parameters was also reported (El-Sayed et al.,
2007). Palanisamy et al., (2011) evaluated the toxicity and changes in
carbohydrate metabolism among air-breathing cat fish Mystus Cavasius after
exposure to electroplating industrial effluent. The effluent from a
manufacturing company located in Trans Amadi axis of Port Harcourt, Rivers
State, Nigeria is highly toxic to Sarotherodon melanotheron at low
concentration (Nte et al., 2011). Sreenivasan and Moorthy (2011) studied
biochemical stress of chromium in tannery effluents on the freshwater fish, Tilapia
mossambica.
Heavy metals also play a significant
role in the distribution of aquatic organisms. There are several reports on the
effects of pesticides and heavy metals of the contaminated sediments on fish
population (Wong et al., 2000; Amaraneni and Pillala, 2001; Wong et
al., 2001; Mondon et al., 2001; Ramesh and Vijayalakshmi, 2002 and
Moore et al., 2003). Daoud (1999) and Seddek (1996) have reported the
effect of high concentration of cadmium in fish. The copper uptake was noticed
in the gill and liver of Oreochromis niloticus and observed various
histological changes (Figueiredo-Fernandes et al., 2007). Sreenivasan
and Moorthy (2011) reported that the uptake of chromium takes place through the
gills of the fish. Several investigators reported the bioaccumulation of heavy
metals in different tissues (Filazi et al., 2003; Ashraf, 2005; Calta
and Canpolat 2006; Fernandes et al., 2007; Fernandes et al.,
2008). Oreochromis niloticus, exposed to Zn for one week showed liver
with degenerated cells, hypertrophied hepatocytes having pycnotic nuclei
(Abdel-Warith et al., 2011). The Sub lethal haematological effects of
zinc on the freshwater fish, Hetero Clarias showed a sharp decrease in
the leucocytes (Ovie and Ewoma Oghoghene, 2008). A change in the leucocytes
count expresses the non-specific immunity in fish after exposure to toxic
substances (Svoboda et al., 2003).
Use of detergents are indiscreetly increased day by day by
human as washing the cloth vehicles, vessels and most of the detergents does
not degrading easily or they degrade very slowly in water body, it means, they
remain in the aquatic system for longer time. They enter in the food chain of
aquatic animals or absorbed through the gills or through the skin of the
aquatic animals. Detergents are organic compounds, which have existed at phase
boundaries, where they are of three types anionic, cationic and non–ionic
detergents (Walker et al., 2001).
Detergents which discharged in the water they may change pH, total alkalinity,
free CO2, DO and also affect the rate of photosynthesis and lead to
eutrophication (Najam et al., 2010).
Thus it has toxic effects on aquatic animals like fishes, causes mortality of
animals.
All detergents destroy
the external layers that protect the fish from bacteria and parasites, cause
damage to the gills epithelium by changing the lipid composition of the tissues
and affecting the production of mucus, decrease the breathing ability, affect
the peripheral nerve receptors of fish which causes changes in feeding and
thermoregulatory behavior. Problems that occurred due to detergent pollution in
the aquatic ecosystems are mostly the water quality degradation due to the low
diffusion rate of oxygen from the air in to the water, which resulted in the
oxygen intake failure of the aquatic organisms. In short term, the accumulation
of detergent in the water may disturb the vision (eyes) of the fish as well as
create gill damage. Acute toxicity studies of Cadmium on the edible carp, Catla
catla revealed significant changes in the biochemical constituents of the
fish like glucose, glycogen, total proteins, lipids and free amino acids (Sobha,
2007). The effect of detergent on biochemical levels in brain and gill of Mystusmon
tetanus was reported by (Chandanshive and Kamble. 2008). Detergents may
also affect the liver of aquatic organisms indirectly through absorption of
certain tissue, as liver acts as detoxicant of any toxic substances enters the
body (Yatim, 1990). It was mentioned further that the first liver damage found
was congestion, i.e. the increase of the blood volume in the blood capillaries.
The failure of oxygen intake by the fish and liver damage result in the growth
retardation (Himawan, 1998; Yatim, 1990).
Most fish will die when detergent concentrations in increased
as low as 5 paps will kill fish eggs and breeding ability of aquatic organisms.
Detergents also effect on biochemical aspects of the animals and also change
the concentration of proteins, fats and carbohydrates (Najam et al., 2010). Able (2006) reported
synthetic detergents are acutely toxic to fish in concentration between 0.4 and
40 mg /L. The interaction between detergents and proteins, and their influence
on membrane permeability may be the basis of the biological action of
detergents. Saxena et al., (2005)
reported the toxic effect of four commercial detergents (Two washing powders
and two cakes) were reported on behavior, mortality and RBC counts of a
freshwater fish Gambusia affinis, Guppy fishes Poecilia reticulate (peters)
are exotic fishes used to keep check on the mosquito the contamination of fresh
waters with a wide range of pollutants has become a matters of concern over the
last few decades population (Vutukuru, S.S, 2005; Vinodhinim and Narayanan,
2008).
The hematological index can be used
effectively to monitoring the response of fishes to various toxicants
reflecting the ecological status of the habitat and is a common method to
determine the sub-lethal effects of the pollutant (Larsson et al., 1985). Therefore blood
parameters are used as indicators for predicting the health where about and
toxicological symptoms of organisms, particularly fishes (Singh, 1995; Pimpao,
2007). Rios et al. (2002) reported that the hematological parameters in
fish are influenced by factors such as sex, reproductive stage, age, size and
health and the external factors such as seasonal dynamics, water temperature,
environmental quality, food and stress. In another study, Elahee and Bhagwant
(2007) reported the hematological and gill histopathological parameters of
three tropical fish species from a polluted lagoon on the west coast of
Mauritius.
The histopathological changes due to
stressors are useful tools to assess the impact of the toxicity of xenobiotics
in vital functions of a living organism. Previous studies have accepted the
histopathological investigations as a reliable biomarker of stress in fishes
(Teh et al., 1997 and van der Oost et al., 2003). Gills, the main
sites for gaseous exchange, osmorregulation and nitrogenous excretion, are
vulnerable to contaminants of the water and demands physiological and
morphological alterations. Exposure of fish to pesticides leads gill lesions
including hyperplasia and thrombosis in the secondary lamellae (Rao et al., 2005). Gill epithelial cells
possessing Na+, K+-ATPase, equivalent to sodium pump, is
a target for many pollutants and its inhibition by certain pesticides is well
known.
Toxicants
produce serious pathological changes in fishes such as gill lesions (Part et al., 1982). Gill lesions as
indicators of exposure to toxicants have previously been used in numerous
laboratory and field studies around the world (Dalzell and Macfarlane, 1999;
Oliveira Ribeiro et al., 2002 and Thophon et al., 2003). Gills of
Oreochromis niloticus exposed to heavy metals showed mild congestion and
oedema of the primary lamellae, severe oedema, hyperplasia, fusion and focal
desquamation of the epithelial lining of the secondary lamellae, epithelial
vacuolation of the secondary lamellae etc. (Kaoud and El-Dahshan, 2010). The
liver showed degeneration of the hepatocytes, congestion of central vein and
nuclear pyknosis in the majority of hepatic cells (Kaoud and El-Dahshan, 2010).
The liver and intestine of Liza parsia exposed to Hg Cl2 (0.2 mg Hg l–
1) for 15 days showed various alterations (Pandey et al., 1994).
Chromium induced ultra structural alterations in the micro ridges, swelling of
primary and secondary gill epithelia, oedema and fusion of secondary lamellae
and degeneration were noticed in the epithelial cells of the catfish, Saccobranchus
fossils (Khangarot and Tripathi, 1990). The pathological changes due to
heavy metals in the intestine of Oreochromis niloticus included atrophy
in the muscular is, degenerative and necrotic changes in the intestinal mucosa
and sub mucosa with necrotized cells aggregated in the intestinal lumen, edema
and atrophy (Kaoud and El-Dahshan, 2010). Kidney has an important role of in
the excretion of harmful materials in fishes. The teleostean kidney is one of
the first organs to be affected by contaminants in the water (Thophon et al., 2003). Kidney lesion was
observed in Nile Tilapia exposed to contaminated sediments (Peebua et al.,
2006).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Experimental animal
Anabas testudineus is commonly
known as climbing perch. In the wild, anabas species grow up to 30cm long. They
inhabit both brackish and fresh water. Anabas species possess a labyrinth
organ, an accessory respiratory organ, so it can be out of water for an extended
period of time (6-8 hours). Anabas has the habit of migrating from pond to
pond. When in water, the fish frequently comes to the surface to breath air.
This air swallowed by anabas is taken into two chambers situated one on each
side above the gills, forming outgrowth from the ordinary branchial chambers,
richly supplied with fine blood vessels and covered with thin epithelium. Presence
of accessory respiratory organ helps Anabas survive in water, low in oxygen
level. It is selected as the test animal due to its hardness & air
breathing ability. Anabas testudineus is
very hardy and eurihaline fish. Anabas
testudineus (Fig. 1) juveniles averaging 10cm length comprising both sexes
were collected from a pond at Chirayinkeezhu, Trivandrum district and brought
to the laboratory in plastic containers without much stress and any mechanical
injury.
Stressor used
The test material
or toxicant used was a synthetic detergent commercially called TIDE, which is
widely used in laundry and domestic purposes. It is a common chemical cleaning
compound, with high levels of 1, 4-Dioxane (C4H8O2)
as a major component. It is a carcinogen. It is also called dioxane, dioxin,
p-dioxane, diethylene dioxide, diethylene oxide, diethylene ether or glycol
ethylene ether. Dioxane is a synthetic industrial solvent used mainly as a
stabilizer in chlorinated solvents.
Collection and acclimatization of fishes
The fishes were
allowed to acclimatize in the laboratory for a period of three weeks. The
fishes were kept in glass tanks having 50L capacity. Six fishes were introduced
in each tank and duplicates were maintained. During this period the fishes were
fed with commercial artificial feed at a ratio of 1.5% body mass. The water was
changed daily in order to remove faecal and unconsumed food. Only healthy
specimens of more or less uniform size were maintained for the experiment.
Range
finding test of the fish
A random series of test concentration were selected and was
assessed in order to make a fairly precise estimation of sub-lethal concentration
(LC 50) values. Test solution was renewed every 24 hours by fresh solution of
the same concentration during the experiment. Selected concentration in narrow
range from the result of range finding test were used to determine sub-lethal
concentration. Six fishes each were introduced to the solutions of different
concentration (20-80mg). Control was
also maintained along with experiment in identical conditions. After each
experiment, the dead animals were removed and the tanks were cleaned and dried.
The LC 50 value of Anabas testudineus
after 168 hours (7days) was calculated as 60mg concentration of detergent using Probit (1962) analysis method.
Experimental
protocol
Healthy laboratory acclimated fishes with active movements were
considered for the experimentation. 18 fishes irrespective of sex of uniform
body weight (20 ± 5gm) and body length (10 ± 1.4cm) were grouped into three
groups of six each and kept in 50L tanks (Fig. 2). The tanks were acid washed
and dried prior to the experiment and filled 25L freshwater. The top of the
tanks was covered with mesh net to prevent the fish from escaping. The first
group (A) was set as the control and the fishes were maintained in chlorine
free tap water. The other two groups, B & C, were served as the experiment and
they were experimentally exposed to 4mg/l and 6 mg/l of the stressor
respectively, under controlled conditions in the aquarium water. The experiment
was performed by the semi static (renewal) method in which the exposure medium
was changed every 24 hours to maintain toxicant strength and level of dissolved
oxygen as well as minimizing the ammonia excretion levels during this
experiment (Kori-Siakpere, 1995). The treatment was continued for 3 weeks. The
fish were daily fed with commercial fish feed at a ratio of 1.5 % of the body
mass. Feeding was stopped for 24 hours prior to sampling to ensure optimum
experimental condition.
Sampling
and analysis
All the fishes were
sampled on the same day. Soon after the treatment all the fishes were quickly
dip netted and anaesthetized with chloroform. For histopathological analysis
organs like gill, liver, intestine and kidney were isolated from treated and
control fishes through Trans – spinal dissection. The excised tissues were then
fixed in 10% formalin for 24 hours. It was washed and
dehydrated through a graded series of ethanol. They were embedded in paraffin
wax and make blocks. After embedding, the blocks where subjected to sectioning
at 3µ for intestine, liver and kidney and 5µ for gill in thickness in a
rotatory microtome. The section was stained with heamatoxylin and eosin stains.
The stained slide were treated with xylene and mounted in DPX and examined
under Leica Stereo Microscope.
LEICA
STEREO MICROSCOPE
The stereo or stereoscopic or dissecting
stereomicroscope is an optical microscope variant designed for low
magnification observation of a sample, typically using light reflected from the
surface of an object rather than transmitted through it. The instrument uses
two separate optical paths with two objectives and eyepieces to provide
slightly different viewing angles to the left and right eyes. This arrangement
produces a three–dimensional visualization of the sampling being examined.
Stereomicroscopy solid samples with complex surface topography, where a three –
dimensional view is needed for analyzing the detail. The stereo microscope is
often used to study the surfaces of solid specimens or to carry out close work
such as dissection, microsurgery, watch making, circuit board manufacture or
inspection, and fracture surfaces as in fractography and forensic engineering.
They are thus widely used in manufacturing industry for manufacture, inspection
and quality control. Stereo microscope is essential tools in entomology.
The stereo microscope should not be
confused with a compound microscope equipped with double eyepieces and a
binoviewer. In such a microscope, both eyes see the same image, with the two
eyepieces serving to provide greater viewing comfort. However, the image in
such a microscope is no different from that obtained with a single monocular
eyepiece.
Stereo microscopes and microscopes from
Leica Microsystems enable to view, analyze and document the specimens in two
and three dimensions. When combined with crisp LED illumination, high
performance digital cameras and easy-to-use Leica application suite software,
these imaging systems provide powerful solutions for precise analysis and
documentation. Whether we need research, laboratory, educational or industrial
stereo microscopes, Leica Microsystems provides customized packages for our
specific application.
RESULT
AND DISCUSSION
An array of different types of
detergents is available in our markets today. The use of detergent is
indiscreetly increased day by day by human as washing clothes, vehicles,
vessels etc. Due to its persistent behavior detergents are toxicants and
accumulated in the fish through food chain or absorbed through general body
surface and severely affect the life supporting system at molecular and
biochemical levels. In the present investigation it is clearly demonstrated
that detergents disturbs the histopathological nature of different tissues of
fresh water fish Anabas testudineus.
Histological
changes in gill
Histological changes in gill due to
detergent are illustrated in our study (Fig. 3). It is found that the effect
increases with increasing time and concentration. The histological analysis in
the control fish showed normal structure but in the treated fishes the gill
exhibits the abnormalities like epithelial hyperplasia, lamellar fusion,
desquamation, atrophy and epithelium lifting. In freshwater fish, the chloride cells in the
branchial epithelia absorb ions (Na+, Cl–, Ca2+)
from the surrounding water. The gill in fishes is concerned
with functions such as respiration and osmorregulation and is in close contact
with the external environment. Any change in the water quality therefore
adversely affects the functioning of the gill, (Fernandes and Mazon, 2003). The
alterations observed in the present study like epithelial hyperplasia and
epithelial lifting are the defense mechanisms for increasing the distance
between external environment and blood. Another change noted in the study was
lamellar fusion and atrophy. Similarly, Figueiredo-Fernandes, et al., (2007) reported the epithelial
lifting, lamellar fusion and aneurism in fish exposed to copper (Peebua et
al., 2008). The study on the effect of the mixed effluent of Sip cot
Industrial Estate on histopathological and biochemical changes in estuarine
fish, Lates calcarifer, showed
hyperplasia, epithelial lifting, fused lamella and desquamation (Chenzhian et al., 2010). Desquamated secondary
lamellae, vacuolization, degenerated cells, and fusion of secondary gill
lamellae had also been observed in Tilapia
mossambica exposed to industrial pollutant (Ravanaiah et al., 2010).
It may be noted that the cell proliferation results in the hyperplasia which
leads to lamellar fusion and also decrease the surface area for oxygen binding
and increase the oxygen distance between water (oxygen) and the blood which in
turn cause hypoxia (Wani et al., 2011).
Histological
changes in kidney
The histological
observation of renal tissues reveals alteration at detergent treated groups of
fish (Fig.4). It shows vacuolation, inflammation and necrosis of renal cells.
The teleostean
kidney is one of the first organs to be affected by contaminants in the water
(Thophon et al., 2003). Because the
important role of kidney in the excretion of harmful materials, the present
study proved occurrence of several histological alterations in the kidney
resulting from detergent toxicity and reflect participation of kidney in
excrete different chemical components of detergent from body. This lesion was
very similar to those observed in Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus exposed to contaminated sediments (Peebua et al., 2006).
Histological
changes in liver
The hepatic tissues of control fish and
detergent treated fish showed some differences in their histology (Fig. 5). The
fish liver tissues exhibited vacuolation of hepatocytes, enlarged hepatocytes,
degenerated hepatic cells, hemorrhage and necrosis are noted.
The liver is the primary organ for
detoxification of xenobiotics (Metelev et al., 1971). The present study
revealed the effect of toxic action of detergent on hepatic tissue. Vacuolar degeneration noticed in the present
study might be due to the presence of toxic chemicals present in the detergent,
as observed by (El-Naggar et al., 2009) in Oreochromis niloticus exposed
to heavy metals. Necrosis, hemorrhage, and degeneration of hepatocytes in the
liver tissue were witnessed in Labeo rohita exposed to zinc (Loganathan et
al., 2006) and Heteropneustes fossilis exposed to thiodan (Narayan
and Singh, 1991). Kalita et al., (2012) reported vacuole formation,
degeneration of hepatic cells, hemorrhage and necrotic lesion in Heteropneustes
fossilis exposed to sewage for 180 days.
Histological
changes in intestine
The most severe histological aberration
was noticed in the intestinal tissues of detergent treated fish (Fig. 6). In
the intestinal tissue of fish treated with high dose (6mg/l) showed marked
variations like inflammation, atrophy, hemorrhage, degenerated muscle layer,
detachment of villi, and degenerated mucosa were observed Fig. 6-C).
Degenerated mucosa and oedema had been reported in fish exposed to edifenphos
pesticide (Gaafar et al., 2010). Other observations reported are
intestinal atrophy in fish collected from the polluted area (Joseph et al.,
2012), necrosed mucosa and sub mucosal hemorrhage in the intestine of cadmium
exposed Oreochromis niloticus (Kaoud et al., 2011).
CONCLUSION
This study
emphasized that the detergent, Tide had a severe impact on the experimental
fish Anabas testudineus. The
histological alterations by toxicity in fish organs are a useful indicator of
environmental pollution. The organ and tissue damage in the experimental fish
due to the direct toxicity of the detergent proved the detrimental effect of
detergents. The results also showed that the degree of distortion of the
tissues was proportional to the concentration of the detergent. From this study
it is evident that the indiscriminate use of the detergents and draining out
them into the natural water bodies will leads to chronic effect in the aquatic organisms and as well as in
humans. Through bio magnification it will cause carcinogenic effects in humans.
Therefore it is advisable that the use of detergents near fish farms and areas
close to aquatic bodies should not be encouraged.
REFERENCE
Abdallah,
M.A.M. and Abdallah, A.M.A. (2008). Biomonitoring study of
heavy metals in biota and sediments in the South Eastern coast of Mediterranean
sea, Egypt. Environ. Monit. Assess.146: 139-145.
Abdel-Warith,
A. A., Younis, E. M., Al-Asgah, N. A. And Wahbi, O. M. (2011). Effect
of zinc toxicity on liver histology of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus.
Scientific Research and Essays.6 (17): 3 760-3769.
Abel, P.D. (2006). Toxicity of synthetic detergents
to fish and aquatic invertebrates, Journal of Fish Biology. 6(3):279-298.DOI:
10.1111/j.1095-8649.1974.tb04545.x
Amaraneni,
S.R. and Pillala, R.R. (2001). Concentrations of
pesticide residues in tissues offish from Keller Lake in India. Environ Toxicol. 16: 550-6.
Amundsen,
P.A., Staldvik, F.J., Lukin, A.A., Kashulin, N.A., Popova, O.A. and Reshetnikov.
(1997). Heavy metal contamination in freshwater fish from
the border region between Norway and Russia. Sci. Total Environ. 201:
211-224.
Andres, S., Ribeyre, F., Tourencq,
J.N. and Boudou, A. (2000). Interspecific
comparison of cadmium and zinc contamination in the organs of four fish species
along a polymetallic pollution gradient (Lot River, France). Sci. Total Environ. 248:
11-25.
Anon
M. (1962). The wealth of India raw materials of
Vol. IV supplements fish and fisheries. Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research, New Delhi. 132.
Arimoro,
F.O., Ikomi, R.B. and Osalor, E.C. (2007). The impact of
sawmill wood wastes on the water quality and fish communities of Benin River,
Niger Delta Area, Nigeria. International
Journal of Science & Technology. 2 (1): 1-12.
Ashraf,
W. (2005). Accumulation of heavy metals in kidney
and heart tissues of Epinephelus microdon
fish from the Arabian Gulf. Environ.
Monit. Assess. 101: 311–316.
Barias, N. (1999). A pilot study of heavy metal
concentration in various environments and fishes in the upper sakaria river
basin. Turkey. Environ. Toxicol. 14:
367-373.
Barton, B.A. (2002). Stress in fishes. A diversity of
responses with particular reference to changes in circulating
corticosteroids.Integ.Comp. Biol. 42, 517.
Begum,
A., Amin, M.N., Kaneco, S., and Ohta, K. (2005). Selected
elemental composition of the muscle tissue of three species of fish, Tilapia
nilotica, Cirrhina mrigalaand Clarius
batrachus, from the fresh water Dhanmondi Lake in Bangladesh. Food Chemistry. 93: 439-443.
Brack,
W., Schirmer, K., Kind, T., Schrader, S. and Schuurmall, G. (2002).
Effect-directed fractionation and identification of Cytochrome P450A-inducing
halogenated aromatic hydrocarbons in contaminated sediment. Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 21:2654-2662.
Brock,
J.A. (1998). Sand Island fish liver disease
examinations.WRRC Project Report No.PR-98-10.Water Resources Research
Centre, Hawaii.
Calta,
M. and Canpolat, O. (2006). The comparison of three
cyprinid species in terms of heavy metals accumulation in some tissues. Water Environmental Research. 78:548-551.
Cazenave,
J., Wunderlin, D.A., Haused, A.C. and De los Angeles-Bistoni, M. (2005). Haematological
parameters in a Neotropical fish, Corydoras paleatus (Jeyns, 1842) (Pisces, Callichthyidae),
captured from pristine and polluted water. Hydrobiologia. 537:
25-33.
Censi,
P., Spoto, S.E., Saiano, F., Sprovieri, M., Mazzola, S., Nardone, G., Di
Geronimo, S.I., Punturo, R. and Ottonello, D. (2006).
Heavy metals in coastal water systems: A case study from the northwestern Gulf
of Thailand. Chemosphere. 64:1167-1176.
Chandanshive,
N.E. (2013). Studies on toxicity of detergents to Mystus
montanus and change in behaviour of fish research journal of animal,
Veterinary and fishery science. 1(9):14-19.
Chandanshive, N. E and Kamble, S.
M. (2008). Studies
on the effect of certain detergent on glycogen content in brain and gill of
freshwater fish Mystus montatanus. Aqua.Bio. Vol. 23(2) 2 139-143.
Chang,
S., Zdanowicz, D.S. and Murchelano, R.A. (1998). Associations
between liver lesions in winter flounder (Pleuronectes americanus) and
sediment chemical contaminants from north-east United States estuaries. Journal of Marine Sciences. 55: 954-969.
Chezhian,
A., Kabilan, N., Suresh Kumar, T., Senthamilselvan, D. and Sivakumari, K. (2010).
Impact of Common Mixed Effluent of Sip cot Industrial Estate on
Histopathological and Biochemical Changes in Estuarine Fish Lates calcarifer.
Current Research Journal of Biological
Sciences. 2 (3): 201-209.
Dalzell,
D.J.B., Macfarlane, N.A.A. (1999). The toxicity of iron
to brown trout and effects on the gills: A comparison of two grades of iron
sulphate. J. Fish Biol., 55: 301–315
Daoud,
J.R., Amin, A.M., Abd El-Khalek, M.M. (1999). Residual
analysis of some heavy metals in water and Oreochromis niloticus fish from polluted areas. Veterinary Medical Journal. 47: 351-365.
Eisler,
R. (1986). Use of Fundulus heteroclitus in pollution studies. Amer. Zool. 26:283-288.
Ekambaranatha
Ayyar. (1985). A Manual of Zoology: Vol. II Chordata.
S. Viswanathan (Printers and Publishers) Pvt.Ltd. Madras Pp. 680.
Elahee,
K.B. and Bhagwant, S. (2007). Hematological and gill
histopathological parameters of three tropical fish species from a polluted
lagoon on the west coast of Mauritius. Ecotoxicol
Environ Saf. 68(3):
361-71.
El-Naggar,
A. M., Mahmoud, S. A. and Tayel, S. I. (2009).
Bioaccumulation of Some Heavy Metals and Histopathological Alterations in Liver
of Oreochromis niloticus in Relation to Water Quality at Different
Localities along the River Nile, Egypt. World
Journal of Fish and Marine Sciences. 1 (2): 105-114.
El-Sayed,
Y.S., Saad, T.T., El-Bahr, S.M. (2007). Acute intoxication of
deltamethrin in monosex Nile tilapia,
Oreochromis niloticus with
special reference to the clinical, biochemical and haematological effects. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology. 24: 212-217.
EPA
“Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff” Fact sheet No:
EPA-841-F-05-001. March, (2005).
Evans,
D.H., Piermanin, P.M. and Choe, K.P. (2005). The
Multifunctional fish gill: dominant site of gas exchange, osmorregulation, acid
base regulation and excretion of nitrogenous waste. Physiol Rev. 85:
97-177.
Fernandes,
C., Fontainhas-Fernandes, A., Peixoto, F. and Salgado, M.A. (2007). Bioaccumulation
of heavy metals in Liza saliens from
the Esmoriz- Paramos Coastal lagoon, Portugal. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety.66: 426-431.
Fernandes,
C., Fontainhas-Fernandes, A., Cabral, D.and Salgado, M. (2008). Heavy
metals in water, sediment and tissues of Liza
saliens from Esmoriz-Paramos lagoon, Portugal. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 136: 267-275.
Fernandes,
M.N., and Mazon, A.F. (2003). Environmental pollution
and fish gill morphology. In: Val, A. L. & B. G. Kapok (Eds.). Fish
adaptations. Enfield, Science Publishers. 203-231.
Figueiredo-Fernandes,
A., Ferreira-Cardosa, J.V., Garcia-Santos, S., Monteiro, S.M., Carrola, J.,
Matos, P., and Fontainhas Fernandes, A. (2007). Histological
changes in liver and gill epithelium of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus, exposed to waterborne copper. Peq. Vet.
Bras.27 (3):103-109.
Filazi,
A., Baskaya, R., Kum, C. and Hismiogullari, S.E. (2003). Metal
concentrations in tissues of the Black Sea fish Mugil auratus from Sinop-Icliman. Turkey. Human and Experimental Toxicology.
22: 85-87.
Fower,
B.A.R., Kardish, M., and Wood, J.S. (1983). Alteration of
hepatic microsomal structure and function by Indium chloride, ultra structural
morph metric and biochemical studies. Laboratory Investigations. 48(4): 471-478
Gaafar,
A.Y. and El-Manakhly, E.M. (2010). Some pathological,
biochemical and hematological investigations on Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) following chronic
exposure to edfenphos pesticide. J. of
American Science. 6: 542-551.
Gabriel,
U.U., Anyanwu, P.E. and Akinrotimi, A.O. (2007). Effect
of fresh water challenge on the blood characteristics of Sarotherodon melanotheron. Agricultural
Journal. 2 (3): 388-391
Greig,
S.M., Sear, D.A., Carling, P.A. (2005). The impact of fine
sediment accumulation on the survival of incubating salmon progeny:
implications for sediment management. Sci.
Total Environ. 344:
241-258.
Hemmaid,
K.Z. and Kaldas, S. (1994). Histopathological and
histochemical alterations occur in liver of fishes (Oreochromis niloticus) exposed to sub lethal concentrations of
Ammonia. J. Union. Arab.Biol. 01A: 83-102.
Himawan,
S. (1998). Pathology University Indonesia: Jakarta3
448 hlm. Pathology: Indonesia University. 448 pages.
Joseph,
B. D., Pradeep, D. and Sujatha, S. (2012). Relative study
on haematology, Glycogen content and histological changes in the organs of Anabas testudineus from Parvathiputhanar
(Polluted) and Karamana River (Freshwater).
Kalita,
J.C., Baruah, B.K., Ahmed, R., Choudhury, S.K. and Das, M. (2012). Study
on wetlands of Guwahati (6).Effect of sewage on the liver of fish Heteropneustes
fossilis. Poll Res. 31 (1): 87-89.
Kaoud, H.A. and El-Dahshan (2010). Bioaccumulation
and histopathological alterations of the heavy metals in Oreochromis
niloticus fish. Nature and
Science. 8(4).
Kaoud, H.A., Zaki, M.M.,
El-Dahshan, A.R., Saied, S. and El-Zorba, H.Y. (2011).
Amelioration the toxic effects of cadmium exposure in Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) by using Lemna
gibba L. Life science journal. 8 (1).
Khangarot, B.S. and Tripathi, D.M.
(1990). Gill damage to cat fish, Saccobranchus fossils following exposure to chromium. Water Air
Soil Pollut. 53: 379-390.
Kime,
D.E. (1995). The Effects of Pollution on Reproduction
in Fish. Reviews in Fish Biology and
Fisheries. 5 (1): 52–95
Kori-Siakpere,
O. (1995). Some alterations in haematological parameters in Clarias isheriensis (Sydenham) exposed
to sub lethal concentrations of water-borne lead. Bio Science Res. Commun.
8 (2):93-98.
Kori-Siakpere,
O., Ake J.E.G. and Idoye, F. (2005). Hematological
characteristics of the African snakehead, Parachanana obescura. Afr. J. Biotech.
4 (6): 527-530.
Kori-Siakpere,
P. (1985). Haematological characteristics of Clarias
isheriensis J. Fish Biol. 27: 259 – 263.
Larsson,
A., Haux, C. and Sjobeck, M. (1985). Fish physiology and
metal pollution: Results and experiences from laboratory and field studies.
Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 9: 250-281.
Loganathan,
K., Velmurugan, B., Howrelia, H.J., Selvanayagam, M. and Patnaik, B.B. (2006). Zinc
induced histological changes in brain and liver of Labeo rohita (Ham.). Journal of
Environmental Biology. 27 (1): 107-110.
Meenakshi,
R. (1993). Histological and haematological studies
on effect of pesticide phosphamidon in an air breathing fresh water fish, Anabas testudineus. M. Phil. Thesis,
Annamalai University.
Metelev,
V.V., Kanaev, A.L. and Diasokhra, N.G. (1971).
Water toxicity. American Publishing Company Private Limited, pp. 216.
Mondon,
J.A., Duda, S. and Nowak, B.F. (2001). Histological, growth
and 7-ethoxyresorofin O-di ethylase (EROD) activity
responses of greenback flounder Rhombosolea
tapirina to contaminated marine sediment and diet. Aqua Toxicol. 54: 231-47.
Moore,
M.J., Mitrofanov, I.V., Valentini, S.S., Volkov, V.V., Kurbskiy, A.V., Zhimbey,
E.N., Eglinton, L.B. and Stegeman, J.J. (2003).
Cytochrome P4501A expression, chemical contaminants and histopathology in
roach, goby, and sturgeon and chemical contaminants in sediments from the
Caspian Sea, Lake Balkhash and the Ily River Delta, Kazakhstan. Mar Pollut Bull. 46: 107-19.
Murthy,
N.B.K., Sathya Prasad, C., Madhu and K.V. Raman Rao. (1986). Toxicity
of Lindane to fresh water fish, Tilapia
mossambica. Environ. Ecol. 4(1): 20-23.
Najam
Ahad, K.A., Wanule, D.D. and Bhowate, C.S. (2010). Effect
of herbal detergent based Dabur Vatika Shampoo on Guppy Poecilia reticulate
(Peters). The Bioscan. 5 (2) 321-322.
Narayan,
A.S. and Singh, B.B. (1991). Histopathological
lesions in Heteropneustes fossils
subject to acute thiodan toxicity. Acta Hydrochem. Hydrobiol. 19: 235-243.
Nte,
M. E., Hart, A. E., Edun, O. M. and Akinrotimi, O.A. (2011). Effects
of Industrial Effluents on Haematological parameters of black jaw tilapia Sarothedon
melanotheron (RUPELL, 1852). Continental
J. Environmental Sciences. 5 (2): 29 – 37.
Nussey,
G., Van Vuren J.H.J. and Du Preez, H.H. (1995). Effect
of copper on the differential white blood cell counts of the Mozambique tilapia
(Oreochromis mossambicus). Comparative
Biochemistry and Physiology. 111C:
381–388.
Nussey,
G., Van Vuren J.H.J. and Du Preez, H.H. (2000). Bioaccumulation
of chromium, manganese, nickel and lead in the tissues of the moggel, Labeo
umbratus (Cyprinidae), from Witbank Dam, Mpumalanga. Water Since. 26 (2): 269-284.
Omar, W.A., Saleh, Y.S., Marie, M.A.S. (2014).
Integrating multiple fish biomarkers and risk
assessment as indicators of metal pollution along the Red Sea coast of Hodeida,
Yemen Republic. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 110: 221-231.
Oliveira
Ribeiro, C.A., Belget, L., Pelletier, E. and Rouleau, C. (2002). Histopathological
evidences of inorganic mercury toxicity in the Artic charr (Salvelinus pinus). Environ. Res. 90:
217-225.
Ovie,
K., and Ewoma Oghoghene, U. (2008). Sub lethal
haematological effects of zinc on the freshwater fish, Heteroclarias sp. (Osteichthyes: Clariidae). African Journal of
Biotechnology.7 (12): 2068-2073.
Palanisamy,
P., Sasikala, G., Mallikaraj, D., Bhuvaneshwari, N. and Natarajan, G.M. (2011).
Electroplating
industrial effluent chromium induced changes in carbohydrate metabolism in an
air-breathing Cat Fish Mystus Cavasius (Ham). Asian J. Exp.
Biol. Sci. 2 (3):
521-524.
Pandey,
A.K., Mohamed, M.P., and George, K.C. (1994). Histopathological
alterations in liver and intestine of Liza parsia (Hamilton-Buchanan) in response to mercury toxicity. Journal of
Advanced Zoology. 15: 18-24.
Parra,
J.E.G. and Baldisserotto, B. (2007). Effect of water pH and
hardness on survival and growth of freshwater teleosts. In: Baldisserotto B,
Mancera JM, Kapoor BG (Eds) Fish osmorregulation. Science Publishers, Enfield.
135-150.
Part,
P., Tuurala, H. and Soivio, A. (1982). Oxygen transfer, gill
resistance and structural changes in rainbow trout (Salmogairdneri Richardson) gills perfused with vasoactive agents.
Comp. Biochem. Physiol., 71C: 7-13.
Peebua,
P., Kruatrachuea M., Pokethitiyooka P. & Kosiyachindaa P. (2006).
Histological Effects of Contaminated Sediments in Mae Klong River Tributaries,
Thailand, on Nile tilapia, Oreochromis
niloticus. Science Asia. 32, 143-150.
Peebua,
P., Kruatrachue, M., Pokethitiyook, P. and Singhakaew, S. (2008).
Histopathological alterations of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus in acute and sub chronic alachlor exposure. Journal of Environmental Biology. 29
(3): 325-331.
Pimpao,
C.I., Zampronio, A.R. and Silva de Assis, H.C. (2007). Effects
of deltamethrin on hematological parameters and enzymatic activity in Ancistrus multispinis (Pisces,
Teleostei). Pest. Biochem. Phsiol.
88 (2): 122-127.
Probit
analysis, 3rd edition, (London: Cambridge University Press). Pg.20
Sahli, T. (1962). Text book of clinical pathology. (Ed.
Scward, Eimiller). Williams and Williams and Co., Baltimore, pp. 35.
Ramesh,
A and Vijayalakshmi, A. (2002). Environmental exposure
to residues after aerial spraying of endosulfan: residues in cow milk, fish,
water, soil and cashew leaf in Kasargode, Kerala, India. Pest Manag Sci. 58: 1048-54.
Ramona,
A., Biawas, A.K., Kundu, S., Saha, A.K. and Yadav, R.B.R. (2001). Efficacy
of distillery effluent on seed germination and seedling growth in mustard,
cauliflower and radish. Proc. Nat.
Acad. Sci. India. 71:
129-135.
Rashed,
M.N. (2001). Monitoring of environmental heavy
metals in fish from Nasser Lake. Environ.
Int. 27: 27-33.
Ravanaiah,
G. and Narasimha murthy, C.V. (2010). Impact of aquaculture
and industrial pollutants of Nellore district on the histopathological changes
in the gill of fish, Tilapia mossambica. Indi .jour. Comp. Animal. Phsiol. 28 (1):
2010. 108-114.
Riba,
I., Conradi, M., Forja, J.M., DelValls, T.A. (2004).
Sediment quality in the Guadalquivir estuary: Lethal effects associated with
the Aznal collar mining spill. Mar.
Pollut. Bull. 48: 144–152.
Rios,
F.S., Kalini, A.L. and Rantin, F.T. (2002). The effect of
long term food deprivation on respiration and hematology of the neo-tropical;
fish, Hoplias malabaricus. J.
Fish Biol. 61: 85-95.
Rao, J.V., Begum, G., Sridhar, V., Reddy, N.C. (2005). Sub lethal effects of monocrotophos on locomotors behavior
and gill architecture of the mosquito fish, Gambusia
affinis. J. Environ. Sci. Health. 40B, 813-825.
Rueda,
J., Camacho, A., Mezquita, F., Hernanadez, R. and Roca, J.R. (2002).
Fish structure in some Southern English streams: The influence of
physic-chemical factors. Freshwater
Biology. 13: 521-544.
Saravanan,
T.S., Mohanned, M.A., Chandrasekhar, R. and Sundara Moorthy, M. (2003). Fresh
water fish as indicators of Cauvery River pollution. J. Environ. Biol. 24:
381-389.
Sasaki,
Y.F. Izumiyama, F., Nishidate, E., Ishibashi, S., Tsuda, S., Matsusaka, N.,
Asano, N., Saotome, K., Sofuni, T., and Hayashi, M. (1997).
Detection of genotoxicity of polluted sea water using shellfish and the
alkaline single-cell gel electrophoresis (SCE) assay: A preliminary study. Mutat. Res., 393: 133-139
Saxena, P. (2005). Effect of an acute and chronic
toxicity of four commercial detergents on the freshwater fish Gambusia
affinis Baird and Gerard,
J. Environ Sci. Eng. 47(2):
Schwaiger,
J. Bucher, F., Ferling, H., Kalbfus, W. and Negele, R.D. (1992). A
prolonged toxicity study on the effect of sub-lethal concentrations of bis
(tri-n-butylin) oxide (TBTO): Histopathological and histochemical findings in
rainbow trout (Onchorhynchus mykiss). Aquat.Toxicol.
23: 31-48
Seddek,
A.S., Salem, D.A., El-Sawi, N.M., and Zaky, Z.M. (1996). Cadmium,
lead, nickel, copper, manganese and fluorine levels in River Nile fish. Assiut. Veterinary Medical Journal, Egypt. 35: 95-102.
Shrek,
C.B. (1981). Stress and compensation in Teleostean
fishes response to social and Physical factors. In: A.D. Pickering (Ed.),
stress and fish. Academic Press,
London, pp: 295-231.
Singh,
M. (1995). Haematological responses in a fresh
water teleost, Channa punctatus to
experimental copper and Cr poisoning. J.
Environ. Biol. 16:
339-341.
Sobha, K. (2007). A study on biochemical changes
in the fresh water Fish, Catla 119-124.
Sreenivasan,
R.S. and Moorthy, K.P. (2011). Biochemical stress of
chromium in tannery effluents on the fresh water fish, Tilapia mossambica (Pisces). Int. J. Biol. Med.Res. 2
(3): 616-620.
Stolte,
E.H., de Mazon, A.F., Leon- koosterziel K.M., Jesiak, M., Bury, N.R., Strum,
A., Savelkoul, H.F.J., Van Kemenade, B.M.L.V., and Flik, G. (2008). Corticosteroid
receptors involved in stress regulation in common carp, Cyprinus carpio. J. Endrocrinol. 198(2): 403-417
Svoboda,
Z., Lusskova, V., Drastichova, J., Svoboda, M. and Zlabek, V. (2003).
Effects of deltamethrin on haematological indices of common carp (Cyprinus
carpio (L)). J.ACTA Brouno. 72: 79-85
Teh,
S.J., Adams, S.M., Hinton, D.E. (1997). Histopathological
biomarkers in feral freshwater fish populations exposed to different types of
contaminant stress. Aquat.Toxicol.
37: 51–70.
Thophon,
S., Kruatrache, M., Upatham, E.S., Pokethitiyook, P., Sahaphong, S. and
Jaritkhuan, S. (2003). Histopathological alterations of
white sea bass Lates calcarifer, in acute and sub chronic
cadmium exposure. Environ. Pollut.
121: 307–320.
Tort,
L., and P. Torres (1988). The effect of sub-lethal
concentration of Cadmium on hematological parameters in the dog–fish,
Scyliorhinus canicula. J. Fish Biol., 32:277-282
Van
der Oost, R., Beyer, J., Vermeulen, N.P.E. (2003). Fish
bioaccumulation and biomarkers in environmental risk assessment: A review.
Environ. Toxicol. Pharamacol. 13: 57-149.
Vinodhinim, R. and Narayanan, M. (2008). Bioaccumulation of heavy metals in organs of freshwater fish Cyprinus
carpio (Common carp) Int.
J. Environ. Sci. Tech., 2005; 5 (2), 179-182.
Vutukuru, S.S. (2005). Acute
effects of hexavalent chromium on survival oxygen consumption, hematological
parameters and some biochemical profiles of the Indian major carp, Labeo rohita. Int. J.
Enuinon. RES. Public Health, 2 (3): 456-462.
Walker,
C.H., Sibly, R.M., Hopkin, S.P., Peak all, D.B. (2001). Principles
of Ecotoxicology. 2rd edition ISBN. 0-203-26767-2.
Wani,
A.A., Sikdar-Bar, M., Borana K., Khan, H.A., Andrabi, S.S.M. and Pervaiz, P.A.
(2011). Histopathological Alterations Induced in Gill
Epithelium of African Catfish, Exposed to Copper Sulphate Clarias gariepinus.
ASIAN J. EXP. BIOL. SCI., 2 (2):
278-282.
Wedmeyer,
O., McLeay, D.J. and Goodyear, C.P. (1984). Assessing the
tolerance of fish and fish population to environmental stress. The problems and
methods of monitoring. In. Contaminant effects on fisheries. W.V. Cairns, P.V.
Hudson and J.O. Nriaagu (Eds). John Wiley and Son Inc. New York. 164-195.
Wedemyer,
G.A. (1996). “Transportation and Handling”. In:
Principles of Salmonid culture. (Eds. Pennell, W. and Barton, B.A). Elsevier
Science (Pub) Amsterdam. 727-758.
Wendelaar
Bonga, S.E. (1997). The stress response in fish. Physiol.
Rev. 77, 591-625.
Wilson,
R.W. and Taylor, E.W. (1993). The physiological
responses of freshwater rainbow trout, Onchorhynchus mykiss, during
acute exposure. J. Comp. Physiol.,
163 b: 38-47.
Wong,
C.K.C., Yeung, H.Y., Cheung, R.Y.H., Yung, K.K.L. and Wong, M.H. (2000). Ecotoxicological
assessment of persistent organic and heavy metal contamination in Hong Kong
coastal sediment. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol.,
38: 486-93.
Wong,
C.K.C., Yeung, H.Y., Woo, P.S. and Wong, M.H. (2001).
Specific expression of Cytochrome P4501A1 gene in gill, intestine and liver of
tilapia exposed to coastal sediments. Aqua
Toxicol. 54: 69-80.
Wood,
C.M., Pessy, S.F., Wright, P.A., Bergman, H.L. and Randall, D.J. (1989).
Ammonia and urea dynamics in the lake Magadi tilapia a teleost fish adapted to
an extremely alkaline environment. Respire
Physiol., 77:1 -20.
Yaji,
A. J. and Auta, J. (2007). Sub-Lethal effects of Monocrotophos
on some haemotological indices of African catfish Clarias gariepinus (Teugels). J. of Fisheries International. 2 (1): 115-117.
Yatim, W. (1990). Biology and Modern Histology:
Penerbit Transito publication Bandung, 374 pages.
Zaniboni
– Filho, E., Noner, A.P.O., Reynalte – Ta- taye., D.A. and Serafini, R.L.
(2009). Water pH survival. Fish Physiol Biochem. 35:
151-155.
No comments:
Post a Comment